Land Of Pakistan

Location of Pakistan

·        On the western end of South Asia, on the east, India; north China, NW, Afghanistan; west, Iran; south, Arabian Sea.

·        From Latitude 24⁰ 35/N 37⁰ 05 N; longitudes 61⁰ E to 78⁰ E.

·        1600 km N to S; 885 km E to W.

Importance of Location

·        Connected to Afghanistan by historic passes e,g, Khyber & Khajak, a narrow strip of Wakhan (Afghanistan) separates it from central Asia (Tajikistan)

·        China through the Khunjerab Pass (KKH)

·        Iran by road & rail routes.

·        India by road & rail routes.

·        Pak’s coast b/w the Middle East & Far East + SE Asia.

·        Karachi airport also at central position.

·        1992 onwards, opportunity to provide transit trade to the landlocked CAR’s (Central Asian Republics), on the pattern of the ATTA (Afghan Transit Trade Agreement).

·        Huge deposits of power resources in CAR’s can be of great healp to Pak.

·       Bilateral trade with China & Iran also important for Pakistan.

Landforms of Pakistan

Topography: Study of surface features of land (e.g rugged, flat, badland).

Drainage:      Water channels (rivers, lakes, streams) passing through/ draining an area.

Two main natural topographic divisions:

1.     Western highlands: N & W Mountains the Balochistan plateau, potwar plateau & salt range.

2.     The Indus plain________UIP (Upper Indus Plain), (Lower Indus Plain), Tidal/Indus Delta, Desert plains.

Western Highlands

(1) Northern (& north-western) mountains:

·        Karakoram, Hindukush, Himalayas & Dir, Kohistan & Swat ranges, across the north of Pak.

·        Himalayas further subdivided into: the Siwaliks/Lower, lersser/outer & greater Himalayas.

Natural Topography: stretch across north of Pak run E to W

·        Parallel ranges, average hight 4000-7000 (K-2 highest, 8475m) with decreasing height N to S

·        Steep slopes, snow-covered peaks, high narrow passes, snow field/glaciations features, deep valleys (Dasu Patan 6500m in the Himalayas.

Glaciation features:

·        Snow fields are plains coverd permanently with snow/ice above the snowline (4500m or above)

·        Serrated iandscape (series of peaks appearing as dentitions & used for agriculture)

·        Bare rocks (devoid of vegetation due to height above snowline)

·        Scree or loose rock debris accumulated at foothill.

·        U-shaped valleys due to moving glaciers.

·        Deeply dissected terrain, also due to movement of glaciers.

·        Cirques/Corries: steep walled basins (shallow areas) due to glacial action; e.g, Lake Siaf-u-Muluk in Koghan vally & Lake stapara near Skardu.

Glacial action:

·        While moving, glaciers cause: (i) erosion, both as abrasion & plucking (ii) transportation of their load & (iii) depositing of their load at a new place.

·        Abrasion is the scrapping of the surface by rocks frozen into the moving ice.

·        Plucking occurs when ice is frozen or the rock surface & pulls of rock pieces as it moving again.

·        Some major glaciers: Siahchin, Batura, Baltro.

·        Important valleys: Kaghan, Hunza, Baltistan, Murree & Galiat.

Drainage of N. Mountains:

·       Indus & its tributaries are dominant drainage features.

·       Indus originates from Lake Mansrowar in joined by River Sawat, Indus itself joins river Kabul at Attock.

·       Forms deep valleys & gorges in its course takes a southern turn at kalabagh to enter the Indus plain.

·       In N. Mountains, western and eastern tributaries of Indus also provide drainage. E.g., rivers Gilgit, Hunza, Kabul (western rocks eroded by river following downhills) waterfalls (steeply falling water) rapids (a series of water falls) streams & springs (water of melting snow falling down from varying heights).

Northern Mountains: individual ranges

1.     The Karakoram ranges

·        Average height 6000-7000m

·        Run from Hunza to shyok, 400km, in an E to W direction

·        Deep narrow valleys, sharp peaks

·        K-2 highest peak

·        Khujerab & Karakoram passes

·        Hunza, Baltistan valleys; Gilgit, Skardu famous areas.

2.     The Himalayas:

·        South of Karakoram range separated by river Indus

·        Subdivided into:

(a)   The great/central Himalayas, upto 6000m, Indus makes it southern & western boundary

·        Nanga Parbat (8126m) highest peak, 2^nd highest in Pakistan

·        Glaciers e.g. Rupal (N), Rupal (S)

·        Dasu Patan vally 6500m deep

·        Drained by Indus

(b)  Lesser Himalayas, 1800-4600m

·        In Kashmir, Pir Panjal range

·        In Abbotabad, Mansehra districts & Murree & Galiat region

·        No Glaciers.

(c)   Lower/Sub-Himalayas:

·        600-1200m

·        Southern most of the Himalayas range

·        Also called the Siwaliks

·        Located mainly-Rawalpindi

3.    The Hindukush

·       NW of Pak, west of Karakoram

·       Rivers Hunza & Gilgit, boundary b/w K.Koram & H.Kush/

·       River Ghizer, southern boundary

·       In the north, merge into the Palmir Plateau

·       Height 500m Tirich Mir (7690m) highest peak.

·       Baroghil Pass b/w Pak Gilgit & Chitral

·       Lawarai Pass b/w Chitral & Sawat+Peshawar

·       Drainage: Rivers Kabul, Indus, sawat, Panjkora/

Life & Economy in the N. Mountains

·        Fruit farming e.g dry fruits, apple, apricots, etc.

Ø Crop farming, mainly terrace farming, (crops grown on small flat patches on mountains and hill slopes)

Ø In winters while staying indoors, cottage industry, e.g carpets, rugs, straw items embroidery etc.

Ø Only a few major industries e.g fruit processing industry (dry apricots).

Ø Limited amount of seasonal earning from tourism.

Ø Livestock forming usually transhumance (seasonal migration of formers with herds of livestock.

Ø Trade activity b/w some major towns e.g Murree, Rawalpindi, Gilgit, Punjab, Kaghan, Punjab etc due to transport linkages.

Economic Potential and Importance  

Ø Huge water reserves for HEP (Hydroelectro power) & irrigation crops in the Indus plains.

Ø Natural routes and passes and linkage Pak with china, Afghanistan & Central Asia via Afghanistan; KKH to play a vital role in future.

Ø Natural protection by mountains peeks and scenic beauty of valleys slopes, peeks, glaciers may help tourism industry.

Ø Forests act as natural habitat to wildlife; also provide timbler, firewood & wood for many industries, e.g., furniture & sports goods/

Ø Untapped minerals e.g germs, limestone etc.

Effects of Human Environment on Physical Environment

Ø Threat to physical environment by growing population & economic soil erosion & landslide; more deforestation due to failure to supply natural gas, meeting the needs of livestock, construction of roads & rapidly growing population.

Ø Water population due to negligible by tourists & the govt, leading to water-borne diseases e.g., dysentery, cholera etc.

Western Mountains (W. Mountains)

·        Natural Topography & Drainage:

Ø South of N. Mountains, river Kabul separates N from W mountains/

Ø A series of parallel ranges; N to S, with decreasing height: Safed koh range (4700m), Waziristan hills (3500m), Sulaiman range (3380m) & Kirthar hills (upto 2170m)

(i) Safed Koh E to W often covered with snow

Ø River Kurrum south of the range: also kurrum Pass & Khyber Pass; drained by river Kohat

Ø Peshawar valley, drained by rivers Kabul & swat, 300m high.

Ø Kihat valley, 460m high.

(ii) Waziristan hills:

Ø B/w kurrum & Gomal rivers

Ø Together with the safed koh range, form a rampart (partition) b/w Pak & Afghanistan.

Ø Bannu valley, east of Waziristan hills, near the tochi & Gomal.

Ø Bannu valley is 150m high/

(iii) Sulaiman & Kithar ranges:

Ø B/w the Balochistan Plateau on the west & the Indus plains on the east/

Ø Extend from the Gomal river in the north to the Arabian sea in the south, 850km length.

Ø Sulaiman range, west of Indus river, average height 1500km with Takht-i-Sulaiman highest peak (3383 m)

Ø Kirthar range, average height 1500m.

Ø Boian Pass, west of sulaiman range.

Ø Drainge by Gomal. Zhob, Hab & Lyari rivers.

Life & Economy in Western Mountains

Factors limiting human activity:

·        Rugged terrain, cold winters, lack of vegetation

·        High cost of development infrastructure, e.g. water, power, gas supply, transport system & canal irrigation.

·        Difficult to develop mining, industries; difficult to provide health & education services.

Human Activity/Human Environment

·        Nomadic livestock farming, goats & sheep rearing.

·        Mining of limestone, gypsum, marble.

·        Large scale crop farming in valleys e.g Peshawar where Warsak dam on river Kabul provides irrigation; rice, wheat, sugar, cane, tobacco, main crops.

·        Sugar, tobacco, cement idnsutries in Peshawar, Kohat Mardan.

·        Metalled roads, rail transport in valley towns e.g., Peshawar.

The Potwar & The Sakt Range

(1) Topography:

·        South of the Northern Mountains & Islamabad b/w Indus on the west & Jhelum river on the east.

·        In the north, Margaila Hills & Kala Chitta Ranges.

·        In the south, the salt ranges divided by river soan.

·        In the west, cross Indus river & enter the Bannu Valley.

·        300-600m high/

·        Kala Chitta & Khairi Murat hills, upto 1000m/

·        Salt Ranges, 750-900m the Sakesar Peak in 1527m high.

·        Badlaland topography , badly dissected & eroded land due to physical & human factors, e.g., heavy Monsoon, thunderstorms & poor farming (overgrazing & stagnant irrigation water on hills slopes)

·        Land marked by elevations & depressions. E.g., ridges, gullies, ravines, troughs, bare rocks & residual hills due to constant erosion & deposition, also alluvial plains as a result of the action of the rivers.

·        Draubage; Rivers soan, sil, Haro etc & lakes e.g., Kalar Kohar, Khabeki & Uchali.

Life & Economy/Human Environment

1.     Farming: Mainly Barani/Rain-fed farming of wheat, hrains, barely, maize; canal irrigation difficult due to uneven landscape

2.     Mining: Rich mineral deposits, e.g., gypsum, limestone, soapstone, rock salt, marble____ many cement, ceramics & chemical factories_____ coo; & oil; Attock oil Refinery near Rawalpindi.

3.     Agriculture Institutes e.g., University of Arid Agriculture, Rawalpindi; ABAD Colleges (about Barani Agriculture), Rawalpindi & Jhelum.

The Balochistan Plateau

Physical Features:

·        Located in SW Pak.

·        Diversfied topography & drainage

·        Height 300-3010m

·        Physical features of eastern part different from those in the western part.

·        Eastern part has mountains ranges, plateau & lasbela Plain.

·        Western part has many ranges & basins.

1)    Ranges & Basins in Northern and & Western Balochistan.

·        N. Balochistan.

·        Zohb & Loralai and basins b/w the Toba Kakar and the sulaiman ranges.

·        Quatta Valley surrounded by various ranges in SW of Loralai basin.

·        Narrow streams flow downhill in rainy season (after many years), deposit alluvial soil, gravel, sand & boulders at the foothills & alluvial fans are formed on the ‘Piedmont Plains’

ii        W. Balochistan

·        A series of mountain/hill ranges with basins b/w them

·        Ranges includes: Chagai Hills, ras Koh (2000m), Siahan (2000m) Central Makran (1000-1200m) & Coastal Makran (200-600m), running N to S.

·        Central Bahui Ranges, east of Quetta.

·        No outlet of basins to the Arabian sea; when it rains (after a long interval of dry period) rain water drains into temporary rivers & streams that flow into the basins & either soak into ground or gather on temporary lakes______ inland drainage pattern of balochistan.

B. The Coastal Areas

• Eastern part of lasbela plain, marked by gravel and sand dunes, drained by river Porali/
• Western part is the Makran cost ______ a narrow coastal plain with coastal Makran hills, extends from Karachi to jiwani.

Drainage of the Balochistan Plateau

• Many rivers with different destinations and the inland drainage by dry lakes are hamuns.

             I.      Some rivers join the Indus from the west, e.g., Zhob, Karachi and Kandhar.

          II.      Some drain into the Arabian sea, e.g., Hub, Porali, Mashkai, & Hingol (the largest river of balochistan)

       III.      Rivers Mula, Bolan, Loralai, and Chakar are absorbed into the Karachi sibbi plain (continued into the Lower Indus plain)

       IV.      Many small rivers and streams flow west ward and drain into Hamuns (Shallow depressions) in the N part of SW balochistan.

·         Area b/w ras Koh amd Chahai Hills in the North and the Siahan range in the south is quit dry, with small rivers that flow during rain fall only.

·         Some of the disappear into sand while others reach Hamuns.

·         This is the inland drainage/

·         Largest of all is the Hamun-i-Mashkal in the W part of Karan desert.

·         Others: Humun-i-Lora b/w Chagai & Ras Koh; Humain-i-Lora b/w Chagai and Ras Koh,; Humain-i-Murgho b/w Siahan & Ras Koh.

Life and Economy

1.            Factors Limiting Human activity:

·         Rugged land in several parts, e.g., western Balochistan.

·         Too hot summers in Kharan desert & neighboring SW parts.

·         Shortage of water due to arid climate.

·         Little water for drinking and irrigation.

·         Karez, diversion channels and tubewells provide some water.

·         Poor transport and communication system.

·         Only a few railway links

·         Absence of link-roads b/w forms/mines and the main roads.

·         Roads and railways not in good condition.

·         Low priority given by most of the govts since 1947 and so, no major development projects (axcept for the more recent Gawadar project)

·         V.Low population density, few major industries and poor social services e.g., education, health, security etc.

Economic Resources

1. Minerals:

·         Variety of metallic and non metallic minerals, partly/totally untapped, e.g., copper, chromite, coal, oil, gas, gold, (recently by discovered, 2010), silver & antimony.

2. Agriculture:

(a) Fruit farming in cool areas and Karez-fed oases in SW Balochistan.

·   Plums, peaches, apples, apricots, pomegranates, grapes, and almonds in abundance, great, export, potential as 75% of total production in surplus, & good quality.

(b)     Vegetable Seeds

·   Chilly weather for transplantation & warm, dry weather for flowering & ripening of vegetable seeds, in many parts of balochistan.

(c)     Livestock Farming:

·   Nomadic farming.

·   Imp products: wool, goat hair & skins for both domestic needs & experts.

3.      Fishing

·   Marine fishing on Makran coast, about 30% of total fish catch/

·   Subsistence & commercial scale.

·   Gawadar, Pasni, Ormara_______ 3 major ports with potential of deep-sea fishing development at Gawadar.

Future Prospects

·   Exploring & exploting mineral wealth.

·   Specially, copper in Saindak & Gold in Riq Dek (discovered in 2010) can develop Balochistan & whole of Pakistan; rearing sheep & goats along modern lines can satisfy food needs & promote leather, woolen textile & food industries.

·   Deep sea fishing at Gawadar & setting up modern fishing institutes can supplement income from fishing industry.

·   Setting up EPZ’s (export processing zones) & industrial estates at Gwadar can boost economic growth.

·   Developing modern transport system e.g., Coastal Makran Highway will connect Balochistan to the rest of the Pakistan.

The Indus Plains

·        Formed by the alluvium spread by the IRS (Indus River System) in most of Punjab & Sindh.

I.       UIP:

·        Slopes NE to SW

·        Height decreases from 300m in the north to 75m at Panjnad in the south.

·        Extends from attock to Panjnad.

·        Land of 5 rivers (Indus & its eastern tributaries) & 4 Doabs (land b/w 2 rivers)

Landmarks Across a Doab

I.     AFP (Active Flood Plain):

·        Strip of flat land

·        2-3 high from the river level.

·        About 15m wide.

·        Flooded every by the start of summer (glacial melt + Moonsoon)

·        Fresh alluvium is deposited every year, making it ideal for agriculture.

·        Marked by Meanders (curves in the course of a river), ox-bow lakes (more pronounced Meanders), Levees (slightly raised land due to continued deposition of alluvium) & braided channels ( many Meanders interlacing each other); all these to be seen at the end of the rainy season.

·        AFP along all rivers except for the southern half of Ravi due to low volume of river.

ii.    OFP (Old Flood Plain):

·              Strip of flat land b/w bar upland & AFP.

·              About 3-5m high, 12km wide.

·              Flooded every 7-8 years when heavy floods carry river waters beyond AFP.

·              7-8 years old alluvium is deposited on the OFP.

·              Highly suitable for agriculture.

·  Part of plain closer to AFP is MFP (Meander Flood Plain) & the part towards the alluvial terrace is called CFP (cover flood plain)

·  Marked by Meanders, abandoned channels & dried ox-bow lakes.

iii.   Scarp/Bluff/Cliff:

·  Steep slope from CFP to alluvial Terrace/Bar upland (highest point across a Doab)

·  5-11 high, about 6m wide.

·  UIP also has slate hills/Quartzite, Piedmont plains, alluvial fans (plains on the foothills) & sand plains.

IV.  Alluvial Terace/Bar upland:

·  Strip of flat land on the highest point across a Doab.

·  Around 11m high, 25-30km wide.

·  Covered by very old alluvium (Bhangar)

·  In Sindh Sagar Doab (b/w Indus & Jhelum), Bar upland is covered by sand.

·  Safest & most suitable for human settlement & economic activity.

       Drainage:

·  Indus and its tributaries.

·  Many small but mainly 4 eastern tributaries drain UIP.

·  Width of Indus about 1.4km in UIP.

·  Marks of passage of rivers e.g, Meanders, Ox-bow lakes and braided channels, visible.

LIP.

·  Panjnad in Punjab to Thatta in Sindh/

·  At Panjnad 5 rivers (Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, Beas join to flow as a single river called Panjnad for 72km to finally join Indus at Mithankot.

·  Mithankot to Thatta, Indus alone carrying waters of all its tributaries.

·  LIP slopes N to S lower in height from UIP.

·  AFP (wider than that in UIP) and OFP b/w Indus on the west and Nara desert (and abandoned channel).

·  No Bar upland as Indus alone flows.

·  Shores most of the landmarks with UIP, e.g., a few low hills )& so, alluvial fans and piedmont plains), sandy plains with rolling sand dunes, Meanders, Ox-bow lakes, Braided Channels.

·  Instead of Quartzite (in UIP), limestone ridges or cuestas in LIP/

       Drainage:

·  Mainly Indus alone carries waters of all tributaries.

·  Only a few minor tributaries e.g., Zhob, Kalachi and Khandar rivers but they contribute little bulk as compared to the eastern tributaries in UIP.

·  Indus is about 1.6km wide in LIP.

·  Instead of continuously flowing as a single stream, Indus breaks up into many distributaries at Thatta before falling into the Arabian sea.

ID (Indus/Tudak Delta)

Topography:

·        Thatta to the Arabian Sea/

·        Indus splits into branches/distributaries that fan out to make a triangular plain (Deltaic plain) before draining into the Arabian Sea.

·        Raised banks (Levees) of distributaries due to deposition of alluvium.

·        Encroaching sea water fills up the depression (trough) b/w distributaries to from marshy land.

·        Also, mud flats and bars on ID.

·        Bars near the coast, flats towards inland parts of the delta.

Drainage:

·  Names and unnamed distributaries of Indus, e.g, Lyari, Kalri, Pinyari Lakes.

(4)   Piedoment Plains

·  Literally “plains at the foothills”

·  Part of the Indus plains.

·        Mainly beyond the eastern slopes of the Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges, though many smaller piedmont plains at other places, e.g., on the southern side of the Siwaliks in the Chaj Doab (b/w Chenab and Jhelum rivers) and in the Rachna Doab (b/w Chenab and Ravi rivers)

·  The Sulaiman Piedmont Plains is called the Derajat.

·  Medium & small rivers flowing downhill, slow down on reaching the foothill & split into a number of smaller streams that fan out from the main stream over a vast triangular are .____ the alluvial fans of alluvial cones.

·  Graved, sand & salt brought by the river spread on the alluvial fan.

·  From Sulaiman_Kirthar Slopes, the Piedmont Plaint extend upto the Indus river.  

·  All the plains are suitable for agriculture

(5)   The Desert Plains.

       3 main deserts in Pakistan:

(i)                The thal Desert in the Sindh Doab b/w Indus & Jhelum rivers.

(ii)             The Kharan Desert in SW Balochistan, near Chagai Halls

(iii)           The Thar Desert, subdivide d into:

(a)                                                                 Cholistan (Punjab)

(b)                                                                Nara (Sindh) & Thar or Tharpakar (Lower Sindh)

Natural Topography of a Desert Plain.

·                    Typical features of a desert plain in the thar Desert, a 75000 sq km area of Punjab & Sindh.

·                    Constantly blowing wind determines topography features:

Ø Vast, gently undulating sandy plain.

Ø Varying elevations on the plain, e.g. Sandy ridges

Ø Crescent-shaped shifting dunes in the northern part stable, latitude dunes & ridges the southern part, in the eastern part, transverse sand ridges & dunes.

Ø Rolling sand hills.

Ø Bare rocks & weathering of rocks due to lack of water wide interdunal valleys (b/w the dunes).

Life & economy in the Indus Plains.

·                    UIP & LIP, centre if human activity since ancient times.

·                    Growth of Agriculture, industry & trade with developed infrastructure resulted in high population density in several parts & emergence of many major towns.

·                    Subsistence & cash crop farming.

·                    Rice, cotton, sugarcane, wheat & many secondary crops

·                     Extensive network of irrigation canals roads railways.

·                    Quick movement of Agriculture & mineral raw materials products & workers.

·                    Continental climate & irrigation canals help large scale cultivation of main crops.

·                    Power from HEP & thermal plants to help industrial development.

Deltaic, Piedmont & Desert Plains.

·                      Relatively less developed.

·                      Reduced water supply to the Delta due to reservoirs.

·                       Upstream supply of the Indus adversely affected Agriculture fishing & mangrove forests.

·                      In piedmont plains a little better.

·                       Large scale agriculture   in the Derajat, but not many factory industries transport links due to their location west of the Indus.

Desert Areas:

·                        Very difficult life to severe shortage of water very hot summers hot winds sand storms & lack of vegetation.

·                        Nomadic livestock farming with sheep goats & camels.

·                        Subsistence farming of wheat, grams etc.

·                        Also commercial farming with the extension of canals from the sukkur Barrage on the Indus.

·                        Mining of coal& oil.

·                         Good prospects of the “ Thar coal & power Project” after discovery of one of the world’s largest coal reserves in thar.

Sources & Types of Rainfall.

(1)    Monsoon:

Ø          July- September

·        Summer (South –western) & winter ( North – eastern) winds

Summer wind bring rain

Start of simmer          continents (inland areas ) heat up      hot air rises quickly to create a low pressure area in Pakistan.

·        Ocean water picks up heat slower than the continents & So, relatively higher pressure  prevails over the bay of Bengal.

·        Low pressure area over Pakistan attracts rain bringing winds from the high pressure area over the bay of Bengal.

·        Winds cross Bangladesh & North india plains to enter Pakistan from its eastern side.

·        Heavy showers of variable intensity & duration in northorn , north- western & castern parts of Pakistan          N mountains & upper Indus plain area.

·        Some relatively weaker winds originate from the arabain sea to cause some rain in the Indus Delta & Lower parts of the lower Indus plain.

·        Winter winds            from inland area in NW to SE Pakistan (Land to Sea)     no rainfall because of dry winds.

·        Tail end of summer winds reaches Pakistan          highly variable rain in amount timing & distribution.

(2) Western Depressions.

·        Dec to March.

i.                   Cyclones originate from the Mediterranean Sea.

ii.                 Travel over dry parts of Afghanistan & Iran       most of the moisture  is lost during the  long journey.

iii.              Winds enter Pakistan’s NW parts        moderate rain in N, NW & W parts.

iv.              Upper Indus plain also receives some rain from this source.

v.                 Main areas     N. mountains NWFP, Balochistan, Makran coast parts of upper Indus plain.

(3)  Thunderstorms  caused by the convectional current.

·        Pre-Monsoon (Apr-June) & post-Monsoon (Oct-Nov) seasons

·        Mainly pre-Monsoon source

·        Start of summer      hot air with moisture rises suddenly        reaches height, causing thermal instability that in turn causes stormy winds.

·        Condensation at

·        Winds + heavy shower of short duration mainly in N parts of Pakistan from mountains areas to the upper Indus plain.

·        Southern parts remain deprived of this type of rain due to the temperature inversion.

·        Temperature inversion in SE & SW parts of Pakistan       hot air rises to good height but fails to get condensed

·        Returns simply as warm air       no rain

·        Post- Monsoon winds do not bring sufficient rain        Oct-Now generally the driest months.

(4)  Relief Rainfall.

·        Many N mountainous areas receive this type rain

·        Related to relief / height/ hill slope

·        Moist, unstable air strikes hill  slope rise to get condensed cause rainfall. Murree & neighboring areas it.

·        Rainfall on the windward slope, but on the leeward slope only dry warm & sinking air      little or no rainfall.     

·         Quetta, Gillgit- Chitral      main rain shadow areas.

(5)  Tropical Cyclones

·        Violent stormy winds originating from the Arabian Sea        rarely reach Pakistani coastal      most are diverted towards indain coast

·        If hit Pakistan, a few hours of heavy rain with destructive stormy winds.

·        Cause damage to the fishing communities the coast, esp the Indus Delta coast, crops livestock mud houses & power and communication lines  in the Indus Delta region.

·        Unreliable & ineffective type of rain.

Effectiveness of Rainfall.

·        Generally ineffective rain.

·        Monsoon      variable in amount, timing & distribution      limited value for Agriculture       irrigation is needed.

·        High Summer temperatures      more evapotranspiration than absorption of rain.

·        Heavy Monsoon showers       greater degree of surface run off & floods       little absorption of rain by land.

·        W. depression relatively more useful       comes in light showers & also lesser evaponspiration.

·        Amount of rain from this source is not sufficient & reliable       irrigation is needed.

IMPORTANCE OF RIVERS TO PAKISTAN.

There are two river systems in Pakistan that include the Indus system and rivers of Balochistan.

THE INDUS SYSTEM.

·         The Indus is watered by glaciers of the Karakorum and hindu kush.

·        The Sutlej Chenab, Jhelum are the main easter tributaries of the Indus.

·        All the eastern tributaries join together by time Sutlej joins the Chenab at Panjnad to become the river panjnad which then joins the Indus near Mithankot.

·        The river Indus has the highest mean monthly discharge in june and july.

·         The rivers to the west of the Indus are smaller in length and width and have less water than the eastern tributaries.    

RIVERS IF BALOCHISTAN.

·        Quetta being altitude region has the central position in the dreainage pattern of Balochistan.

·        Rivers like the Zhob Khandar and the kalachi drain into river Indus because they flow eastwards.

·        Some rivers like hab Porall and Hingol drain in the Arablan Sea.

·        There are many small rivers that flow westward and drain into shallow depressions called hamuns.

·        Rivers in Balochistan are much smaller than in the Indus river system.

·        They normally flow only during the rainy seasin and most of the rivers remain dry for most of the year. They have little value as sources for irrigation.

In Pakistan ground water resources are exploited by shallow wells tube wells and the karez system. In desert areas ground water is difficult to obtain as the water table is extremely low and the rate of evaporation is much higher ground water is extremely useful in areas where canal irrigation is not possible and rainfall is variable and scanty like most of Balochistan.    

Modern Irrigation methods:

Tube wells.

·        They draw ground water by electrically diesel motor.

·        It is efficient but less than the perennial canals.

PERENNIAL CANALS.

·        They are taken from reservoirs.

·        They provide water throughout the year.

·        They have a high cost of building but most efficient method.

·        Problems like water logging and salinity occur if banks are left unlined.

TANKER:

·        The automobile water tankers in emergencies only.

·        They are more suitable for parks and linear plantations along roads.

SPRINKLERS:

·        It is centrally placed punctuated device.

·        It releases water under pressure.

·        It is not suitable for large farms but is for house lawns etc.

·        Another lager version of these is Drip / Trick method which is a large network of tubes with holes to release descend amounts of water.

·        It is highly economical as it saves water loss.

PROBLEMS OF WATER LOGGING AND SALINITY:

·        Water seeps through unlined banks of canals then it reaches the crop root zone and damages the soil.

·        This raises the water table and is called water logging.

·        As water evaporate, salts are left behind and this condition is called salinity white salt patches appear on affected land.

Siltation in reservoirs:

Deposition of silt at bottom if reservoirs are called siltation.

CAUSES OF SILTATION:

          Deforestation on foothills causes the rivers to bring silt from the Karakorum and Himalayas as well as from the valleys carved by the rivers.

EFFECTS:

·        Capacity if reservoirs is reduced.

·        Reservoirs foundation is weakened.

·        Less water stored for irrigation and HEP production.

·        Choking of canals.

·        Water supply pipers are choked.

·        HEP machinery is damaged.

SOLUTIONS.

·        Raise dam’s height e.g Mangla dam being raised now.

·        Install silt traps that are very expensive

·        Afforestation and reforestation schemes to be launched.

·        Make cemented banks of canals.

·        Stop deforestation.  

Modern Irrigation methods:

Tube wells.

·        They draw ground water by electrically diesel motor.

·        It is efficient but less than the perennial canals.

PERENNIAL CANALS.

·        They are taken from reservoirs.

·        They provide water throughout the year.

·        They have a high cost of building but most efficient method.

·        Problems like water logging and salinity occur if banks are left unlined.

TANKER:

·        The automobile water tankers in emergencies only.

·        They are more suitable for parks and linear plantations along roads.

SPRINKLERS:

·        It is centrally placed punctuated device.

·        It releases water under pressure.

·        It is not suitable for large farms but is for house lawns etc.

·        Another lager version of these is Drip / Trick method which is a large network of tubes with holes to release descend amounts of water.

·        It is highly economical as it saves water loss.

PROBLEMS OF WATER LOGGING AND SALINITY:

·        Water seeps through unlined banks of canals then it reaches the crop root zone and damages the soil.

·        This raises the water table and is called water logging.

·        As water evaporate, salts are left behind and this condition is called salinity white salt patches appear on affected land.

Forests.

2 main types: Productive (natural) and protective ( usually man made)

GEOGRAPHICAL TYPES:

1.     Alpine:

·        They are found at greater heights near the snow line.

·        They are short trees because of poor exposure to the sun and very low temperatures.

·        They are used for firewood only.

2.     Coniferous:

·        Expensively distributed in mountainous areas at height lower than for alpine forests.

·        Special adaptation features allow them to survive at low temperatures :

i.                   Tall rounded trunks to reach the sun to catch more sunlight.

ii.                 Firmly held roots to ensure survival against winds.

iii.              Downward sloping branches to prevent snow accumulation.

iv.              Cone shaped covering of fruit to protect the seeds.

v.                 Thin needle shaped leaves to reduce water loss through transpiration.

·        Uses:

i.                   They provide wood for various industries e.g furniture industry or for making match boxes.

ii.                 They provide natural habitat for wild life.

iii.              They add to scenic beauty of the environment.

iv.              Also they reduce pollution and lower temperature and provide wood for firewood.

3.     RIVERINE / BELLA:

·        They are found along Indus and its tributaries, as linear plantation .

·        Uses:

i.                   They check over flow of river.

ii.                 Strengthen the soil.

iii.              Provide wood for furniture and agriculture tools.

4.     Tropical Thorn / Dry or scrub forests. 

·        They are found in plains of Punjab and Sindh as well as parts of south west Balochistan.

·        They are used for firewood only.

5.     SUB-TROPICAL THORN BUSH:  

·        They are found on hills and foothills of Potwar region.

·        Uses:

i.                           They are used as firewood.

ii.                 They are used for grazing purposes.

iii.              Prevent land of plains from floods, (i.e they act as watershed protection)

6.  Man-made / irrigated Forests:

·        They are present on several parts of Pakistan for example change Manga near Lahore Jallo Forest at Lahore and as national parks elsewhere.

·        Uses.

i.                   Provide valuable species are grown to provide wood for industries for example sports goods timber.

ii.                 Also provide wood for firewood.

iii.              They keep the environment clean and healthy.

7.     Mangoves. 

·        They are found at Indus and Hub Delta.

·        Have special features.

i.                   The roots are exposed and bathed by water.

ii.                 They have mechanism to filter out excess salt and that enable them to live in a mix fresh (Indus ) and salty (Arbian Sea) water.

·        Uses.

i.                   Used for firewood.

ii.                 Provide wood for furniture.

iii.              Leaves give fodder to camels and nutrition to fish

iv.              They check tidal waves and absorb earthquake or tsunami shocks.

v.                 Form habitat for fish and shrimps

vi.              Provide breeding ground for fish and also protect them from shrimps.

CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION:

·        Clearance of land for roads houses, industries growing crops and mining.

·        Overgrazing by livestock especially on hills and foothills.

·        Use of wood as fuel by about 50% of population.

·        Wood for various local and foreign industries e.g. sports goods construction truck bodies and boats.

·        Illegal cutting of trees for local market and smuggling.

EFFECTS IF DEFORESTATION:

·        Soil erosion leads to siltation in reservoirs and so less water is left for irrigation leading to less crop yield and less water for HEP production also causes disruption of water supplies.

·        Another effect is more surface run off which causes more destructive floods (effects on crops and lives of people)

·        Impact on environment: loss of scenic beauty, loss of tourists, loss of natural habitat and likely extinction of species wild life. More pollution less rain (tree attract rain) and eventual contribution to global warming are all included in the effects of deforestation.

SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS CAUSED BY DEFORESTATION.

·        Afforestation i.e planting trees at new places and reforestation i.e planting trees to make up loss of deforestation.

·        Discourage deforestation creating awareness.

·        Provide: (a) natural gas to forested area and (b) irrigation to deforested areas to encourage plant growth.

·        Plant selective species e.g firewood species that people are allowed to cut down.

·         Improve techniques of establishing and maintaining nurseries.

·        Improve working of forest management department by various means.

IMPROVEMENT OF FOREST MANAGEMENT INCLUDES:   

·        Strict enforcement of forest law.

·        Restricting use of heavy machinery in forest areas.

·        Planting firewood species allowed for cutting.

·        Urban forestry i.e regular forestation campaigns linear plantations along roads canals etc.

·        Rural forestry e.g terrace farming i.e farming on flat patches on hill slopes contour ploughing i.e planting parallel to contours on slopes and strip farming (strips of variety of crops in altenate rows) and fruit plantation on hill slopes.

·        Ensure sustainable forestry: make arrangements for future generations to continue to avail forest reserves while present generations exploit the available reserves.

Fish farming    

·        Artificially dev developed inland fishing

·        Rectangular-shaped man –made ponds (farms) for breeding fish

·        Cemented impervious base to prevent water loss through leakage

·        Solid mud to lime banks of pond.

·        Trees on sides to: provide oxygen keep water cool & minimize water loss through evaporation growth & fertilization of fish is facilitated.

·        Types of fish bred in fish farms most of the inland types e.g Rahu, Trout, Thalla, also the Chinese varieties silver & grass.

·        Usually fish farm divided into two parts a nursery & another pond for adult fish.

·        Processes on a fish farm.

·        Feeding the fish

·        Breeding & cross breeding

·        Giving growth hormones for rapid growth

·        More productive activity, if combined with poultry farming because of a no. of advantages.

·        Better yield of fish due to active nutrient coming from the poultry waste (manure)

·        Poultry droppings provide fertilizers for fish ponds highly soluble salts to promote growth of vegetation at the base of farm e.g plankton.

·        Cattle, poultry ducks should be raised on pond embankments.

·        Fish waste serves as poultry feed.

Importance of fish farming. 

·        Means of self-employment

·        Greater returns to fish farmer.

·        Additional source of earning foreign exchange

·        Reduced burden on crop  Livestock farming

·        Productive use of available land

·        Increased fish production can be ensured by modern technology & enhanced skills.

·        Effective means of recycling animal waste of combined with poultry farming        fish & poultry waste.

·        Combining the two becomes more economical for the owner.

Effects of fish farming on environment.

1.     Undesirable  / adverse effects on ecosystem       (1) lowered water table as sub-soil water is pumped out for the farm       salts on land after water evaporates        soil no more fit for vegetation or agriculture.

2.     Conversion  of coastal wetlands into  fish farms has disturbed the Growth of fish varieties & other animals living in the marshy Areas.

3.     Chemical  population: Effluents from fish farm contain various chemicals e.g disinfectants pesticides, used against pests, diseased & predators, also hormones for rapid growth        adverse effects on other organisms.

2.     Beneficial effects:   

·        Recycling of domestic & farm wastes

·        Animal & human waste        god source of organic salts

·        Recycling of fish & poultry waste.   

Govt. efforts to promote fisheries:

·        New fishing methods e.g mechanized bosts.

·         Developing value-added product e.g. canned / frozen fish by providing processing facilities.

·        Improved weather information system by radio transmitters & improved services of the meteorological department.

·        Start of research & development projects  by the MFD (Marine Fishries, Department) e.g Monitoring of Deep sea fishing vessels strengthening of Quality Control Laboratories & improvement in the  MFD Labs in line with the WTO requirements.

·        More recently, variety of development projects at the Gwadar port deep sea fishing & latest fishing techniques.

·        Efforts to improve  fish marketing        both at domestic & international levels.

Feasibility of developing fish industry in gwadar.

·        About 50% of gwaders population involved in fishing

·        Gwadar provides 25% of total marine catch in Pakistan

·        Main species mackerel herring sardines octopus catfish etc.

·         Fishing season       commercial       throughout the year

·        Subsistent farmers don’t fish may to sept       breeding season.

Fishing techniques.

          Variety of instruments e.g nets nylon ropes, float & winches device catch fish.

Small boats & nets        one day only.

Big boats        5-15 days stay in the sea.

Fishing processing:  

·        Initially  just salting & drying

·        1970        ice factory at pasni

·        Now 6 ice factories in Gwadar

·        Good potential canning industry in gwader with good network of roads & observing international quality standards to lift can of export of canned fish of Pakistan.

Govt.’s efforts:   

·        1992         Gwadar fish Harbour cum Mini Port to provide facilities for processing e.g ice factories & cold storage.

·        Another harbor at pasni.

Future Prospects:

·        Many fishing related industries to developed e.g boat marking net making fish processing.

·        Training institutes to train local fisherman for modern techniques of fishing

·        Local population to be provided financial help       interest free loans.

·        Training institutes for women can vital role in local developments.

Problems of fishing industry:

(1) Water pollution:

·        Mainly Karachi area

·        Oil spill domestic & industrial waste, main source

·        Variety of chemicals some having toxic materials carcinogens heavy metals e.g. cadmium nickel & aluminium         found in fish & shrimps

·        Also inland fisheries        due to growing population & increasing industrialization & urbanization         more waste dumped into river lakes etc.

·        Leaching of chemical fertilizers & pesticides into river.

(2) Overfishing:

·        Fishing throughout the year including the breeding season May to Sept        production of fish & shrimps is restricted.

·        Main reason        foreign travelers.

(3) Threat to mangroves:

·        Mangroves         bredding ground, source of shelter & nutrition or fish & shrimps        mangroves depletion due to       overcutting water population & reduced flow of fresh water to the Indus delta after construction of reservoirs upstream of the Indus. 

Agriculture as a systems.   

Subsistence Farming:

Corps grown to satisfy needs of farmers. Traditional methods are used to grow corps.

Cash crop farming.

·        Crop yield is sold to earn

·        Modern methods and human inputs are used e.g modern irrigation methods chemical fertilizers machinery etc.

·        Types of crops:  

1.      Rabi crops: these are sown early in October/ November and are harvested in early summer in April / May. The Examples of this type of crop include wheat grams barely.

2.      Kharif crops: these are sown early summer and are harvested early winter. The example include rice, cotton   sugarcane, pulses millets maize and tobacco etc.

Major Crops: 

1.   Wheat:

·        Wheat requires stiff loamy soil mild temperature from 15c -25c and moderate rain mainly from western depressions as well as irrigation.

Process of wheat cultivation:   

Ø  Sowing on ploughed field

Ø  1^st irrigation is done a month after sowing and the 2^nd one month before harvest, mild rain is preferred before harvest as this improves yield.

Ø  Harvesting and threshing is done both manually and by machines.

2.   Rice.

·        Rice crop requires loamy soil with an impervious (Non-porous) sub-soil to retain water. The temperature should be maintained at 20-30c. Heavy rain is needed up to 2000mm and so irrigation is must.

·        Human inputs include machines, irrigation and fertilizers etc.

·        Cultivation Process:

Ø  1^st stage seeds are sown in nurseries and are grown until they reach the height of 9 inches,

Ø  2^nd stage, the nurseries are transplanted to already irrigated field.

Ø   Just before harvest the water is drained off.

Ø  Harvesting is done both manually and by machine.

Ø  Rice husk is a byproduct after threshing which is used as fodder by livestock and making mud roofs.

Ø  Rice can be cultivated in Punjab (north eastern side) e.g. in Sialkot Shekupura districts as well as in central Sindh e.g Larkana and Mowshero Feroz.

3.   Sugarcane:

·        To plant sugarcane the soil should be medium loamy and temperature must be maintained by 25-25C. to obtain a better yield heavy rain about 1520mm is required and so irrigation spells are many. 

·        Process:

Ø  Ratoon (left over stump of perios crop) and stalks are sown at a distance of 30m.

Ø  Frequent irrigation spells are given (25 spells).

Ø  Insecticides are sprayed.

Ø   Up to 7 feet tall stalks are considered to be a better yield.

Ø  Bundles of stalk are loaded on a vehicle and are transported quickly to sugar mill because it is a bulky crop so starts losing weight after harest and this badly affects quantity as well as quality of sugar.

Ø  It can be cultivated in NWFP e.g. Peshawar and mardan as well as imany parts of central Punjab and southern parts of Sindh.

Other Crops:

1.      Tobacco:

It is kharif crop which is mainly cultivate in NWPF as well as in some parts of northern Punjab. It is an important cash crop as it is a raw material for cigarettes manufacturing.

2.   Millets and Maize:

These can be grown on a variety of soils even on poor soils. They are cultivation on my parts of Punjab e.g. Potwars region as well as in NWFP and Sindh. They are mainly fodder for livestock and are an inferior grain for humans (poor farmers).

3.      Pulses and Grams:

 They are cultivated in many parts of Punjab and Sindh. Grams are Cultivated in Potwer region as well as in valley of NWFP.

4.      Oil Seeds: 

     It is mainly imported but is grown on several parts of upper and Lower Sindh.

LIVESTOCK FARMING IN PAKISTAN.

Subsistence type.

1.   Nomadic:

·        Nomadic people in Baluchistan and the desert areas of Punjab and Sindh Practice subsistence Livestock farming.

·        They move from place to along with their animals in search of food and water.

·        Normally they rear sheep goats and camels.

·        Sheep and goats provide them with food in the form of milk and meat and camels carry their loads for long distances.

·        On finding any grazing ground or water source, they settle down for several weeks to get food, water and fodder.

2.   Transhumance:

·        This type livestock farming is also known as seasonal migration.

·        Transhumance is the system of livestock farming in which the animals are kept on pastures high up in the mountains in summer and brought down to lower levels the animals are often kept in sheds.

·        This system is common in the northern mountains but is also practiced in some parts of the western mountains as well.

·        Goats sheep and cattle are the main animals farmed in the way are reared.

·        Meat, dairy product and wool are the main outputs.

3.   Settled:

·     Subsistence livestock farming is also practiced in the villages of Punjab and Sindh.

·     Cows and hens are kept for milk and eggs to be consumed by the family.

·     Excess milk is processed to make butter or ghee which are important components of their diet.

·     The inputs used are mainly derived from nature and  the processes followed arte the traditional ones.

·     The output are minimal.

·     Occasionally the wool or meat is sold to buy more animals and other necessities of life.

LIVESTOCK FARMING ON  A COMMERCIAL FARM.

·        Commercial livestock farming is practiced either on a small scale by private owners or on a large scale by government owned or military farms.

·        However the bulk of the livestock products are still supplied by small scale private owners though they do not use all the scientific methods.

·        Urban supplies of ilk still come mainly from buffalo herds in the cities themselves.

·        Such dairy farms kept on vacant plots and often lacking appropriate drainage or water supplies constitute land use incompatible with modern hygienic city life.

·         Fodder has to be brought in firm the nearest crop growing area often by heavy overloaded Lorries.

·        Cattle dung is collected and dried in circular cakes plastered on any convenient wall and sold to the market to be used and manure or domestic fuel.

·        There are Australian designed dairy farms for Islamabad and Karachi the Government Dairy farm for quetta and many other military farms.

·        To boost livestock production scientific breeding methods such as cross breeding to increase fertility rates and better nutritional diets are in use on many other government farms.

·        Early weaning diets have also been introduced form rearing buffalo and cow calves to save milk for human consumption,

·        To improve veterinary facilities personnel’s are trained and new methods are used on selected farms.

IMPORTANCE OF LIVESTOCK:

Ø   Livestock is an important agriculture sector.

1.      Animals are used as draft power in the farming process. They help in ploughing threshing and harvesting the crops.  They also transport materials from one place to another are used for turning the Persian wheel.

2.      Livestock is a source of food. Cows and buffaloes provide milk which is also processed into butter and ghee. Goats and cattle provide meat and their dung is used as manure. Chicken provide meat as well as eggs.

3.      The livestock sector provide raw material to domestic industries such as hides skins wool animal hair and boners which are used industries  like carpet product footwear and rugs.

4.      Some of these products especially those associated with cottage indutires have a good demand in international markets. Their percentage share of exports in around 13%.

5.      Livestock contributes about 10 % to the GDP.

MAIN LIVESTOCK RESOURCES:

1.      Cattle:

·        Cattle are the most common farm animals.

·        They are assisted by camels and mules to plough, carry fodder and workers from one place to another on the farm.

·        They also supply meat and milk.

·        Traditionally cattle rearing is a matter of pride and prestige for farmers.

·        Cattle are mainly in areas of Punjab Sindh and NWFP that include Sargodha Multan Gujarat, Tharparkar and lasbela.

2.      Buffaloes:

·        Buffaloes are the main source of milk and meat.

·        They are not important as work animals.

·        Some breeds of buffaloes are famous for their good supply of milk these include Nili Bar Kundi and Ravi.

·        They like to remain in water most of the time and so are mainly found in the canal irrigated areas of the Punjab and Sindh.

Agriculture and environment